Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT) (OJJDP Model Program Guide)

Office of Justice Programs, Innovation - Partnerships – Safer Neighborhoods

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) Serving Children, Families and Communities

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Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT)

Intervention:

Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT) is an intervention designed to prevent the development of aggressive and antisocial behaviors in children within the elementary school setting (particularly first graders and fifth graders).

LIFT was informed by scientific research on the development of delinquency—specifically coercion theory (for more details, see Patterson, 1982, or Patterson, Reid, and Dishion, 1992). As such, LIFT is designed to decrease the likelihood of two major factors that put children at risk for subsequent antisocial behavior and delinquency: 1) aggressive and other socially incompetent behaviors with teachers and peers at school and 2) ineffective parenting, including inconsistent and inappropriate discipline and lax supervision. LIFT has three main components: 1) classroom-based child social skills training, 2) the playground Good Behavior Game, and 3) parent management training. These efforts are fortified by systematic communication between teachers and parents. To facilitate communication, a “LIFT line” is implemented in each classroom. The LIFT line is a phone and an answering machine in each classroom that families are encouraged to use if they have any questions for the teachers or have concerns that they wish to share.

Child social skills training sessions are held during the regular school day and are broken into distinct segments. The first segment includes 1) classroom instruction and discussion about specific social and problem-solving skills, 2) skills practice in small and large groups, 3) free play in the context of a group cooperation game, and 4) review and presentation of daily rewards. The second segment includes a formal class problem-solving session and free play and rewards. The curriculum is similar for all elementary school students, but delivery format, group exercises, and content emphasis are modified to address normative developmental issues depending on the grade level of the participants.

The playground Good Behavior Game takes place during the middle of the free-play portion of the social skills training and is used to actively encourage positive peer relations on the playground. During the game, rewards are earned by individual children for demonstrating positive problem-solving skills and other prosocial behaviors with peers as well as for the inhibition of negative behaviors.

Parent Management Training in LIFT is conducted in groups of 10 to 15 parents and consists of six weekly 2½-hour sessions. Sessions can provide training either after school or in the evenings. Session content concentrates on positive reinforcement, discipline, monitoring, problem solving, and parent involvement in the school. Communication is fostered throughout the school year.

Evaluation Methodology:

Study 1
Reid and colleagues (1999) conducted a population-based, randomized, intervention trial to assess the immediate effectiveness of LIFT. Twelve schools from areas of high juvenile crime were selected at random to participate as either an intervention (n=6) or control (n=6) school. These schools were located in neighborhoods with higher-than-average rates of juvenile crime from the Eugene/Springfield, Ore. region. All first and fifth grade classrooms within each school (32 classrooms total) participated. Participants consisted of 671 first and fifth graders, their families, and their teachers. Families were recruited by trained recruiters through letters, phone calls, and home visits.

The intervention school participants (n=382) received LIFT. The control school participants (n=289) joined in the assessment-only phase of the program. Participants were largely from white, lower- to middle-socioeconomic backgrounds. Participating students were 51 percent female, and 84 percent European American, 5 percent Hispanic, 3 percent American Indian, 3 percent Asian/Pacific Islander, 2 percent African American, and 3 percent “other.” The two groups shared similar backgrounds, though some differences were noted between the groups (the control group had significantly more fathers age 50 or older, more fathers with some graduate education, more mothers with a college education, and more mothers of Asian/Pacific Islander descent). These differences were due to the clustering of demographic characteristics within neighborhoods, such as the inclusion of a graduate student housing complex of a local university.

The intervention took place during the fall. Participants were assessed preceding intervention and again during the spring following intervention. During each assessment, children, parents, and teachers were interviewed and completed a variety of paper-and-pencil questionnaires. Additionally, school and court records were collected, children were observed in the classroom and on the playground, and parents and children were observed during family problem-solving discussions at home or at the research center.

The hypothesis of the study was that the LIFT intervention would have a significant impact on three measures: child physical aggression on the playground, mother aversive behavior during mother-child interactions, and teacher ratings of child positive behaviors with peers during the year following the program. Data was collected from multiple reporting agents (teachers, parents, child, and assessment staff) using multiple methods (observation, questionnaire, and interview) across multiple settings (school, home, and laboratory). The Interpersonal Process Code (IPC) was used to index rates of maternal aversive behavior during mother-child interactions. The IPC was also used to measure rates of child physical aggression towards peers on the playground during recess. The Walker–McConnell Scale of Social Competence and School Adjustment was used to measure social skills of students. Teachers rated students on the Peer-Preferred Social Behavior subscale, which included items such as “shares laughter with peers” and “makes friends easily with other children.”

The analyses involved examination of univariate distributions of the preintervention, postintervention, and follow-up variables. Variables that deviated significantly from normality were transformed using log or square root transformations. Change scores were also calculated (i.e. postintervention minus preintervention, or follow-up minus preintervention). The change score of each outcome variable was regressed on group, grade, sex, and the initial status on that variable, as well as all possible interactions. Random regression analyses included school as a clustering variable and accounted for group, grade, sex, and possible interactions among variables.

Study 2
DeGarmo and colleagues (2009) conducted a follow-up study concentrating on long-term outcomes of the fifth graders from the Reid and colleagues 1999 study. Initial 2-year follow-up data indicated almost no substance use among first grade youths, but the data indicated high levels of initiation and growth in substance use among fifth grade youths. Therefore, the focus of the follow-up study was placed on the fifth grade sample. They collected self-report data of substance use from the students for 7 years until they reached 12th grade, and then analyzed the data for the entire time period. Students were included in the final sample if they participated fully in the baseline assessment or joined the study within the first 2 years of follow-up. The total sample was 351 students within 17 different classrooms in 6 randomized schools.

The study looked at substance use initiation and substance use growth over time. Substance use outcome measures included a simple frequency count of any tobacco use (smoking or chewing), any alcohol use (beer, wine, liquor), and any illicit drug use (marijuana, amphetamines, heroin, cocaine). The use of each substance was rated based on responses to the following question: "How many times have you used in the last 6 months?"

Latent variable growth models were used to analyze the data.

Evaluation Outcome:

Study 1
Child Physical Aggression
Reid and colleagues (1999) found a significant group effect on child psychical aggression. Preintervention, children in both groups exhibited an average of 6.0 aversive physical behaviors on the playground during recess each day. Postintervention, children in the Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT) intervention group averaged 4.8 aversive behaviors. In contrast, control group participants averaged 6.6 a day.

Mother Behavior
There was no significant group effect on mothers’ behavior. However, there was a significant effect for mothers in the intervention group who exhibited high preintervention levels of aversive verbal behavior. Those mothers changed the most postintervention, compared with control group mothers with the highest levels of aversive verbal behavior.

Teacher Ratings of Child Behavior
Social skills of children in the intervention group were viewed more favorably by their teachers than children in the control group were 1 year postintervention.

Study 2
Substance Use Initiation
DeGarmo and colleagues (2009) found that the LIFT youths, compared to control youths, reported a 10 percent reduced risk of initiating tobacco use and a 7 percent reduced risk of initiating alcohol use by 12th grade; both were significant results. There was also a 9 percent reduced risk in initiating illicit drug use, but this reduction did not reach significance. LIFT youths also reported approximately 10 percent reduced risk in initiating alcohol use by 12th grade.

Substance Use Growth Over Time
The entire sample showed significant mean increases in tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drug use over time. Tobacco and illicit drug use showed significant accelerated growth. Alcohol was the most commonly used substance and had the highest level of increased use over time. However, the study found that the LIFT prevention program was associated with primarily slowing down the rate at which substance use increased across adolescence. Compared to control youths, LIFT youths had a significantly reduced average level of use of tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drugs through 12th grade. In addition, girls in the LIFT intervention showed lower growth rates in tobacco and illicit drug use than their male counterparts.

Other Information:

References:

DeGarmo, David S., J. Mark Eddy, John B. Reid, and Rebecca A. Fetrow. 2009. “Evaluating Mediators of the Impact of the Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT) Multimodal Preventive Intervention on Substance Use Initiation and Growth Across Adolescence.” Prevention Science 10:208–220.

Eddy, J. Mark, John B. Reid, and Rebecca A. Fetrow. 2000. “An Elementary School–Based Prevention Program Targeting Modifiable Antecedents of Youth Delinquency and Violence: Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT).” Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders 8(3):165–76.

Patterson, Gerald R. 1982. Coercive Family Process. Eugene, Ore.: Castalia.

Patterson, Gerald R., John B. Reid, and Thomas J. Dishion. 1992. Antisocial Boys. Eugene, Ore.: Castalia.

Reid, John B., J. Mark Eddy, Rebecca A. Fetrow, and Mike Stoolmiller. 1999. “Description and Immediate Impacts of a Preventive Intervention for Conduct Problems.” American Journal of Community Psychology 27(4):483–517.

Stoolmiller, Mike, J. Mark Eddy, and John B. Reid. 2000. “Detecting and Describing Preventive Intervention Effects in a Universal School-Based Randomized Trial Targeting Delinquent and Violent Behavior.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 68:296–306.

Program Specification:

New Rating:

Effective

Re-reviewed Date:

February 2012

Program Type:

Academic Skills Enhancement

Alcohol and Drug Therapy / Education

Classroom Curricula

Conflict Resolution / Interpersonal Skills

Parent Training

School/Classroom Environment

Ethnicity:

African American

American Indian or Alaska Native

Asian

Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander

Hispanic or Latino (of any race)

Other Ethnicity

White

Gender:

Both

Age:

6 - 11

Target Settings:

Urban

Problem Behaviors:

Academic Problems

Aggression/Violence

Delinquency

Family Functioning

Gang Activity

Risk & Protective Factors:

Risk

Family

Family management problems / Poor parental supervision and/or monitoring

Parental use of physical punishment / Harsh and/or erratic discipline practices

Individual

Antisocial behavior and alienation / Delinquent beliefs / General delinquency involvement / Drug dealing

Early onset of aggression and/or violence

Peer

Association with delinquent and/or aggressive peers

School

Inadequate school climate / Poorly organized and functioning schools / Negative labeling by teachers

Negative attitude toward school / Low bonding / Low school attachment / Commitment to school

Protective

Community

Presence and involvement of caring, supportive adults in the community

Family

Effective parenting

Good relationship with parents / Bonding or attachment to family

Individual

Healthy / Conventional beliefs and clear standards

Self-efficacy

Social competencies and problem solving skills

Peer

Involvement with positive peer group activities

School

High quality schools / Clear standards and rules

Additional Information:

OJJDP: Blueprints

SAMHSA: NREPP

HHS: Surgeon General

Department of Education

Status:

Program is in operation at this time.

Performance Measures:

Suggested OJJDP Performance Measures for the Program Types(s):

Delinquency Prevention
Academic Skills Enhancement
Logic Model: PDF
Performance Matrix:PDF
School Programs
Academic Skills Enhancement
Logic Model: PDF
Performance Matrix:PDF
Delinquency Prevention
Classroom Curricula
Logic Model: PDF
Performance Matrix:PDF
School Programs
Classroom Curricula
Logic Model: PDF
Performance Matrix:PDF
Delinquency Prevention
Parent Training
Logic Model: PDF
Performance Matrix:PDF
Mental Health Services
Parent Training
Logic Model: PDF
Performance Matrix:PDF
School Programs
School/Classroom Environment
Logic Model: PDF
Performance Matrix:PDF

Contact Information:

Program Developer:
John B. Reid, Ph.D.
Oregon Social Learning Center
160 East Fourth Avenue
Eugene, OR 97401
Phone: 5414852711
Fax: 5414857087
Email: Click Here
Website: Click Here

Training & TA Provider:
Rebecca A. Fetrow
Oregon Social Learning Center
160 East Fourth Avenue
Eugene, OR 97401
Email: Click Here
Website: Click Here